Technical Report #3
October
2000
by
Ann H. Hains, Eleanor W. Lynch, Pamela J. Winton
Moving
Towards Cross-Cultural Competence in Lifelong Personnel Development
A Review of the Literature
Table of Contents
Definitions and Discussions of Key Terms
- Rationale
- Demographic Changes
- Shift to Family-Centered Services
- Validation for Underrepresented Individuals
Models and Strategies for Addressing Individual Competence
- Stage-Based Models
- Competency-Based Models
- Issues Related To Competency-Based Models
- Definitions Of Competencies in Early Childhood/Early Intervention
- Strategies for Enhancing Individual Competence
- Strategies for Measuring and Evaluating Changes
- Standardized Measures
- Survey Measures
- Qualitative Measures
- Mutliple Methods
- Models for Developing Culturally Competent Systems in Personnel Development
- Counseling Psychology
Early Childhood/Early Childhood Special Education
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The preparation of a diverse workforce encompasses the many fields that are part of the early childhood and early intervention systems. Broadly defined, the early childhood workforce includes the child care community, Head Start, and paraprofessionals who serve families through community-based programs and are likely to reflect the background, race, and ethnicity of the children and families served (NAEYC, 1996). In early intervention, individuals from the 12 key disciplines (audiology, family therapy, nursing, nutrition, medicine, occupational therapy, orientation and mobility, physical therapy, psychology, social work, special education, speech and language pathology) deliver services. The population of early interventionists defined as the focus of this chapter suggest that they do not reflect the cultural and linguistic diversity of the population they serve (Christensen, 1992). For example, professional organizations such as the Division for Early Childhood (DEC), the American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA), and the American Speech and Hearing Association (ASHA) show that their members are primarily white and female (DEC, 1997a; AOTA, 1996; ASHA, 1995a, 1995b). This chapter will (a) describe the current status of cultural and linguistic diversity in the early intervention workforce, (b) discuss the issues of preparing a diverse workforce from an individual, program, and systems level, and (c) recommend practices and strategies.
Early intervention legislation envisioned a partnership between professionals and families for serving young children with special needs and their families. This partnership begins with the recognition that professionals, families, and the larger sociocultural environment of the early intervention system bring their culture to the development and delivery of early intervention services (Iglesias & Quinn, 1997). The discovery and sharing of these values and beliefs and attempts to understand and accommodate differences are a dynamic process that changes over time (Iglesias & Quinn, 1997, p. 55). Culture is a universal context for early intervention--all children and families, staff, and organizations bring values and beliefs to early intervention situations. As Iglesias and Quinn (1997) state, "the challenge posed to early interventionists is how to provide intervention programs that are consistent with the research literature, based on professional knowledge, and at the same time respect the culture of the families who are served. The challenge is not unidirectional. Families must also understand the perspective of the professionals if they are to develop a partnership in early intervention" (p. 56). The purpose of this review is to (a) first discuss definitions and key terms used in preparing personnel for working with culturally and linguistically diverse populations, (b) examine the broad literature across disciplines and within the fields of early childhood and early intervention/early childhood special education, and (c) summarize key points and suggest future directions for the field.
Definitions and Discussions of Key Terms
Culture vs. Cross-Cultural Competence as the Starting Point
Subtle systemic biases exist in how cultural diversity and cross-cultural competency are viewed and constructed (Barrera, personal communication). For example, one often reads about the "lack of diversity among teachers" which means that European American women are providing early intervention services to families who differ from that culture. The implicit construct is that one culture is the sole referent against which others are compared. This perspective perpetuates the "us vs. them" dichotomy. The discussion of culture as a common dynamic process generates a more inclusive context for the discussion of differences. The way in which culture is defined, however, varies. For some, culture is broadly defined to include differences based upon economic status, sexual orientation, gender, and lifestyle. Others focus more on ethnic, racial, and linguistic differences. While basic assumptions about culture and differences in the United States vary in typology, these assumptions influence the cross-cultural models, approaches, methods, and strategies used for personnel development (Carter & Qureshi, 1995).
Similarly, the words cross-cultural competence and intercultural competence are used interchangeably in the professional literature in disciplines as diverse as business, communications, education, nursing, nutrition, psychology, and social work. They refer to the ability to relate and communicate effectively when the individuals involved in the interaction do not share the same culture, ethnicity, language, or other salient variables. When applied to organizations rather than individuals, cross-cultural competence refers to the organization’s ability to be responsive to the unique cultural, ethnic, or linguistic characteristics of its constituency or clientele.
While authors define cross-cultural competence differently, there is considerable overlap across definitions. The field of speech communications primarily addresses intercultural communication competence for individuals living and working in cultures other than their own. In this literature, the definition centers around the effectiveness or perceived effectiveness of communications between individuals of different cultures (Chen, 1989).
Although communication competence is subsumed in the definitions of cross-cultural competence found in human services, it is conceptualized far more broadly than communication.. Within the human services literature, the most commonly used definition of culturally competent systems of care is provided by Cross, Bazron, Dennis, and Isaacs (1989): "a set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system, agency, or amongst professionals and enables that system, agency, or those professionals to work effectively in cross-cultural situations" (p. iv). Barrera and Kramer (1997) define cultural competence as "the ability of service providers to respond optimally to all children, understanding both the richness and the limitations of the sociocultural contexts in which children and families, as well as the service providers themselves, may be operating" (p. 217). Lynch and Hanson (1993) describe cross-cultural competence as "the ability to think, feel, and act in ways that acknowledge, respect, and build upon ethnic, [socio]cultural, and linguistic diversity" (p. 50). From the overlaps across these definitions, it is apparent that cross-cultural competence has multiple components that address attitudes, knowledge, skills, and actions.
Some authors challenge the use of the term "cross-cultural competence." They say that there is always more to learn about differences between and among the many "cultures" that make up humanity, and that the term "competence" implies an endpoint that can never be reached (Baruth & Manning, 1991; Pedersen, 1990).
A related concern expressed by a number of authors (Pedersen, 1990; Ponterotto, 1996; Pope-Davis & Coleman, 1997) is that cross-cultural competence has been predominantly analyzed from an Anglo, middle-class perspective. McIntosh, writing from the feminist perspective, (as cited by Pappas, 1995) extends the continuum of cultural competence by suggesting that full competence cannot be reached without the acknowledgment of white male privilege and active efforts to eliminate the advantages of the white community.
These criticisms highlight the need for (a) emphasizing the lifelong process of developing cross-cultural competence, including the recognition that each individual continues to develop cultural competence within his/her cultural or linguistic group, (b) discussing the issues of power, privilege, and racism as legitimate aspects of understanding and responding appropriately to others across cultural boundaries, and (c) involving diverse constituents, including representatives of non-Anglo, non-academic, non-middle-class perspectives, in the development of the definition of competencies, in the personnel preparation strategies for competence, and in the evaluation of competence (Ponterotto, 1996; Pope-Davis & Coleman, 1997).
Finally, because the definition and measurement of cross-cultural competence are evolving, it is likely that the definitions of today will be replaced by others. As yet, the tenets of critical pedagogy which speak more directly to altering power structures (e.g., Banks & Banks, 1995; Fong & Lease, 1997; Pappas, 1995) have appeared infrequently in the early childhood/early childhood special education literature. However, these issues have been raised peripherally in discussions of the universality of current child development theory (Bernhard, 1995; Mallory & New, 1994). As that perspective emerges within the field, new definitions and approaches to personnel development will also have to be developed. For the purposes of this literature review, we are choosing to use the term cross-cultural competence.
Clarification of the "early childhood workforce" is important to the discussion of personnel preparation because of the many fields that are a part of the early childhood and early intervention systems. One might legitimately ask who is the early childhood workforce and whom are we including when we use this term. One way of defining the early childhood workforce is to ask the question where do young children with disabilities spend their time and who are the individuals (apart from family) who promote the development and care of children in those settings. The answer to that question provides a broad and inclusive definition of the workforce. Children spend time in hospitals, clinics, day care, special and regular preschools, Head Start, pre-kindergarten classrooms, community-based recreation programs, and homes. They are served in those settings by multiple disciplines whose level of training ranges from paraprofessional to advanced specialization.
All of these individuals conceivably play a role in delivering early intervention services. Early intervention legislation (Part C of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [IDEA] Amendments of 1997, PL 105-17) defines 12 key disciplines (audiology, family therapy, nursing, nutrition, medicine, occupational therapy, orientation and mobility, physical therapy, psychology, social work, special education, speech and language pathology) as being integrally involved in delivering early intervention services (Yates & Hains, 1997). However, for the purposes of this literature review we are focusing on the group of individuals defined as "early interventionists" whose primary role is delivering early intervention services because they are credentialled within their states to do so. Within most states this means persons with at least an undergraduate degree in a field related to early intervention who can satisfy certain state-specific early intervention requirements related to demonstrated competence or coursework. These persons either provide direct services and/or work as consultants and teammates to the other individuals mentioned above (e.g., child care providers, physicians, allied health assistants, etc.). Individuals who are designated as early interventionists within their state systems come from varied backgrounds (e.g., early childhood, social work, allied health, human and family development, psychology, etc.) and may have affiliations with various professional organizations.
If one takes a broad definition of the early childhood workforce that includes the child care community, Head Start, and paraprofessionals who serve families through community-based generic and specialized programs, then it is more likely that the workforce and the populations being served approximate each other in terms of background, race, and ethnicity (although there are no figures to document this statement simply because of the difficulty in identifying exactly who these individuals are). However, the data we have on the population of early interventionists defined as the focus of this article suggest that they do not reflect the cultural and linguistic diversity of the population they serve (Christensen, 1992). For example, professional organizations such as the Division for Early Childhood/Council for Exceptional Children, the American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA), and the American Speech and Hearing Association (ASHA) show that their members are primarily white and female (DEC, 1997a; AOTA, 1996; ASHA, 1995a, 1995b). What is important in this discussion about diversity and the early childhood workforce is the recognition that the skills of appreciating and valuing differences are critical for forming effective partnerships with families as well as partnerships with child care providers, Head Start teachers, paraprofessionals working in health clinics, and others who may represent differences in background, level of training, and cultural and linguistic diversity as compared to the population we are defining as "early interventionists."
The word "training" is also worthy of definition. Some people do not like the term; they feel it conjures up images of rote learning. If one considers all of the activities that lead to the presence of a competent, confident, and capable workforce, then a broad definition of training is absolutely necessary. We prefer to use a definition used by the state of Ohio and modified by the state of North Carolina. It satisfies this need to be inclusive of all phases of personnel development (Hughes, 1997; Pierce, 1997): Our definition of training is all activities related to recruiting, preparing, qualifying, supporting, and retaining the workforce.
This broad definition of training means that this paper will address strategies and models for promoting cross-cultural competence at the individual, program, and systems levels. We will avoid what we consider to be arbitrary dichotomies between preservice and inservice training. Given the massive reforms that are taking place in the field with significant retooling of seasoned practitioners being a priority for states, institutions of higher education (IHEs) are likely to play a stronger continuing education role than ever before. The coursework provided by institutions of higher education must be strongly linked with practice and field-based experiences in order to address adequately the competencies required of early intervention practitioners. Similarly, recruitment of students who are culturally and linguistically diverse into professional programs requires university-community partnerships (NAEYC, 1996a; 1996b). Our critique of recommended practices focuses on the need to develop stronger linkages between IHEs, state agencies, communities, and families as a means of promoting culturally competent individuals, programs, and systems.
We reviewed the literature on cross-cultural competence from multiple disciplines to obtain a broad perspective. Then we examined the literature in early childhood and early intervention/early childhood special education on personnel preparation and cross-cultural competence. This review is organized into four sections. The first section provides a rationale for addressing cross-cultural competence. The second section examines the literature describing the models and strategies for addressing individual competence. The third section reviews models for developing culturally competent systems. The final section summarizes the key points for early childhood and early childhood special education, and it proposes future directions for the field in personnel development.
Several reasons for cross-cultural competence are cited in areas outside of human services. The literature discusses the shift to a global economy that demands businesses understand diverse values and cultures in order to function profitably. Likewise, the shift in the United States from an assimilationist or melting pot perspective, where differences are minimized, to a multicultural perspective, where diversity is valued, provides another rationale for addressing cultural competence (Carter & Qureshi, 1995; Isaacs & Benjamin, 1991; McFadden, 1996).
The human services literature includes multiple reasons for increasing professionals’ cross-cultural competence and creating culturally competent systems of care, but three reasons are mentioned most often. The changing population demographics within the United States is mentioned (e.g., Chavez, 1997; Isaacs & Benjamin, 1991; Larke, 1992; Lynch & Hanson, 1998; Phillips, 1993). The shift to family-centered services (e.g., Harry, 1992; Washington, Johnson, & McCracken, 1995; Wayman, Lynch, & Hanson, 1991) is also cited. The importance of validation in the lives of individuals from underrepresented cultural and linguistic groups (e.g., Barrera & Kramer, 1997; Kappa Delta Pi, 1994; Phillips, 1993) is another reason given.
The first reason for addressing the cross-cultural compentence of personnel is U. S. demographics. Researchers project that by the year 2080, most Americans will be from culturally and linguistically diverse populations, and Hispanics will comprise the largest cohort (Bacharach, 1990). Already California has become a "majority-minority" state with over 50% of its population represented by culturally and linguistically diverse groups (Chavez, 1997). Many of the nation’s largest cities have similar compositions. While the U.S. population is becoming more diverse, the educators, social service, and health professionals in early intervention programs most often are white, college-educated women (ASHA, 1995b; Bricker & Widerstrom, 1996; Bowman, 1990; DEC, 1997b; Irvine, 1988). If these trends persist, early intervention professionals and families will increasingly encounter cultural, linguistic, racial, economic, and class differences.
Shift to Family-Centered Services
The second rationale for addressing the cross-cultural competence of personnel is the shift to a family-centered approach in service delivery (Dunst, Trivette, & Deal, 1988; Shelton & Stepanek, 1994). The family empowerment principles promote a change in the nature of the relationship that practitioners have with families, with increased equity and a balance of power being the desired outcomes of such an approach. This approach has heightened the importance of skills related to working effectively and sensitively with families in partnership roles. Given the increased diversity of the country’s population, the abilities to appreciate and respond positively to differences in values, beliefs, traditions and parenting styles are critical skills. The ability to consider power differentials and equity issues as part of early intervention is a new direction for many in the field.
The change in philosophy corresponds with changes in models of service delivery. A preference is given for serving children with special needs and their families in the natural environment (e.g., homes, child care centers, preschools, etc.). Part C of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [IDEA] Amendments of 1997, PL 105-17, defines natural environment as settings that are natural or normal for the child’s age peers who have no disability. In addition, the emphasis on interagency collaboration in the delivery of services in natural environments means building community-based systems of support for young children and their families. These systems of support are coordinated across multiple agencies and disciplines with practitioners working as interdisciplinary teams (Kagan, Goffin, Golub, & Pritchard, 1995).
The changing roles for early interventionists necessitated by evolving philosophies about effective service delivery models have heightened awareness about the importance of cross- cultural competence. Early intervention professionals are moving out of the safe enclaves of specialized clinics and classrooms (McWilliam, 1996). The new models of service delivery have forced the field to deal more directly with what constitutes cross-cultural competence at the individual, program, and agency levels (Rosin, Whitehead, Tuchman, et al., 1996).
Validation for Underrepresented Individuals
The final point, the importance of validation for underrepresented individuals, is variously described in the literature related to services for children and families. In this context validation refers to opportunities for underrepresented individuals to see people of the same racial, ethnic, cultural, or linguistic background participate in valued roles within society. People such as teachers, clergy, TV cast members, physicians, and child care workers serve as role models; and validation through these models is considered to be important to the development of identity and self-esteem. In addition to the importance of cultural, racial, ethnic, and linguistic validation provided by cross-culturally competent professionals, young children are thought to benefit from continuity of care (Barrera & Kramer, 1997; Phillips, 1993). From this perspective, educational and caregiving settings that are similar in style, language, and approach to children’s home environments are assumed, in most instances, to be beneficial. A critical issue is how the home and school or caregiving environments can reinforce and complement each other (Phillips & Crowell, 1994; NAEYC, 1996a).
Models and Strategies for Addressing Individual Competence
As with the definitions of cross-cultural competence described previously, several models have been developed to describe the stages of cross-cultural competence for individuals. The model most often cited in the human services literature is that developed by Cross et al. (1989). This model describes a developmental process that spans a six-point continuum. As outlined by Cross and colleagues, the points include: "cultural destructiveness, cultural incapacity, cultural blindness, cultural precompetence, cultural competence, and cultural proficiency" (p. v). Each of the points along the continuum represents a way of responding to diversity. Those operating destructively hold beliefs or engage in behaviors that reinforce the superiority of one race or culture over another with the resultant oppression of the group viewed as inferior. Those operating at the point of cultural incapacity are less actively destructive but behave paternalistically, lack the skills to be effective with individuals from diverse groups, and often reinforce biased policies. Those who profess that culture, race, and/or language make no difference represent cultural blindness. Individuals and organizations at this point on the continuum actively seek to be nonbiased but in so doing may fail to adequately address the needs of the clients that they serve and implicitly or explicitly encourage assimilation. Individuals and organizations operating on the positive end of the continuum may first be described as culturally precompetent. Although the need for culturally competent policies, procedures, and people is recognized, it may not extend beyond tokenism or a search for ways to respond. Cultural competence, the next point on the continuum, is described as accepting and respecting differences and implementing policies that support these beliefs and commitment. At the final point on the continuum, cultural proficiency, individuals and organizations seek to refine their approach and practice by learning more about diverse groups through research, dissemination, and a fully integrated workforce. This model assumes that through personnel preparation, personal commitment, and systemic change, an individual can progress toward proficiency. A cross-culturally competent individual acts upon a set of values and guiding principles that support cross-cultural competence/cultural proficiency in every aspect or personal, professional, and organizational functioning.
Krajewski-Jaime, Brown, Ziefert, and Kaufman (1996) describe another stage-based model of cross-cultural competence for clinical social workers. This model, developed by Bennett and refined by Gunn (as cited in Krajewski-Jaime) includes six stages that are measured on an intercultural sensitivity scale. The stages, thought to represent a continuum, include: denial, defense, minimization, acceptance, adaptation, and integration. The first stage, denial, is one in which individuals do not recognize that differences among people can be based upon culture or social structure. Instead, they view all people as alike with any differences a result of personal choice. When people first recognize that culture and social structure do influence individuals’ beliefs, values, attitudes, and behavior, they may move to the second stage. In this stage, defense, individuals tend to think about other cultures hierarchically. Typically, western, industrialized cultures are ranked highest by westerners with other cultures falling in status as they differ from this norm. The third stage, minimization, is similar to Cross et al.’s (1989) cultural blindness. In this stage, cultural differences are recognized but viewed as inconsequential. The first three stages are considered to be ethnocentric stages in which individuals use their own culture as the benchmark for viewing all others. The remaining three stages are described as ethnorelative. In the fourth stage, individuals accept differences without judging or minimizing them. People who achieve the fifth stage, adaptation, are able to alter their own behavior to accommodate the behavior of those who differ from themselves. In the final stage, integration, individuals celebrate and incorporate cultural differences into their way of being. Although the stages differ from those proposed by Cross et al., this model also suggests a developmental progression accompanied by attitudinal and behavioral changes.
Campinha-Bacote (1994) provides a somewhat different model in the nursing literature. Her Culturally Competent Model of Care includes four components: cultural awareness, cultural knowledge, cultural skill, and cultural encounter. Within this framework, cross-cultural competence is viewed as additive and requires that individuals become proficient in all of the components. However, cross-cultural competence is acknowledged to be an ongoing process. Harry (1992) and Lynch and Hanson (1993) describe cross-cultural competence similarly.
Pierce (1993) describes a model for educating for diversity that departs from the models described in earlier paragraphs. It is based upon a critical thinking approach that focuses on aligning, modeling, encouraging, discovering, challenging, and building. She suggests that the processes that are inherent in critical thinking are the same processes that support effective diversity education (Pierce, 1993).
In summary, the stage-based models of cross-cultural competence for individuals identified in the human services literature share a common approach. All assume a continuum through which individuals can progress in order to develop or improve their effectiveness in working with children and families with whom they do not share a common background. The models also suggest that cross-cultural competence is not a fixed set of skills that can be obtained or mastered. Instead, developing cross-cultural competence is an ongoing process that requires lifelong learning. The models vary on how personnel progress from one stage to the next; some assume sequential progression in which individuals must complete one stage before moving to the next; others are more fluid since professionals are not involved in all situations to the same extent and vary in their short-term and long-term relationships. The various stages described in these models ranging from self-awareness to advocacy suggest a scope and sequence for personnel preparation.
The fields of intercultural communication (Seelye, 1996), multicultural counseling (Ponterotto, 1996; Ponterotto, Casas, Suzuki, & Alexander, 1995; Pope-Davis & Coleman, 1997; Sodowsky, Kuo-Jackson, & Loya, 1997; Whitfield, 1994), multicultural education (Banks & Banks, 1995; LaBelle & Ward, 1994; Sleeter & Grant, 1994) provide leadership in the development of cross-cultural competencies as well as strategies and training materials. In addition, multicultural competencies have been defined and described in nursing (Camphina-Bacote, 1995), social work (Manoleas, 1994), psychology (APA, 1993), and bilingual education (Chu & Levy, 1988). Currently many professional organizations include multicultural competencies in their professional standards or licensure requirements (APA, 1986, 1993; CEC, 1996; NAEYC, 1996b; NCATE, 1994).
An important early contribution to the identification of multicultural competencies was a position paper in the multicultural counseling literature by Sue and his colleagues (Sue, Bernier, Durran, et al., 1982). They conceptualized competencies in terms of knowledge, beliefs/attitudes, and behaviors. Sue and his colleagues updated and expanded the competencies within a framework that includes the following three components: awareness of own cultural values and biases; awareness of clients’ world views; and culturally appropriate intervention strategies (Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992).
Issues Related To Competency-Based Models
Sue’s early work and update is considered by some in the counseling field to be the "state of the art delineation," is referenced in much of the literature on the topic, and used as the basis for many of the assessment tools in the field. However, some criticisms and proposed changes have been stated. One relates to the described danger of restricting competencies to a purely cognitive or behavioral level. The warning is that this allows individuals to distance themselves from internalized racist attitudes (Sodowsky, Taffe, Gutkin, & Wise, 1994). Sodowsky and colleagues (1994) propose competencies in a fourth dimension called "multicultural counseling relationship." They describe this as the "human factor" and one that addresses sensitivity to issues of inequity and lack of empowerment for many populations. In order for counselors to be multiculturally competent "they must be willing to integrate a component of political advocacy for minority populations into their professional identity" (Sodowsky et al., p. 18, 1994). This implies that personnel development for professionals should include knowledge and skills related to advocacy.
Pedersen (1990) identified the constructs of complexity and balance as being important in understanding competencies. Complexity means the ability to see multiple viewpoints that can be right within their own cultural context. Balance involves the ability to see positive implications in seemingly negative experiences and the ability to avoid simple solutions. These constructs are important to consider for designing strategies to prepare and evaluate personnel.
Definitions Of Competencies In Early Childhood/Early Intervention
Early definitions of cross-cultural competencies in early intervention focused on cultural sensitivity. Serving Culturally Diverse Families of Infants and Toddlers with Disabilities (Anderson & Fenichel, 1989) was one of the first publications to focus on the issue of unmet needs among families from diverse cultural and linguistic groups in early intervention programs. For many in the field of early intervention/early childhood special education, this monograph provided a much-needed wake-up call about the need for and strategies for developing cultural sensitivity. The authors suggested staff development activities that focused on awareness training, culture-specific information, values clarification, and opportunities for simulated experiences with feedback. They also highlighted the need for input from diverse community members and the need for cultural sensitivity to be reflected by programs and agencies as well as practitioners. The paradigm of cultural sensitivity laid the foundation for a new way of thinking about the issues of diversity in service settings and the professional development activities that would be required to provide culturally sensitive services.
As training related to cultural sensitivity became more commonplace, it became clear that sensitivity alone was not enough. Informed by developments in other areas such as multicultural education (e.g., Sleeter, 1991), those working and writing in this area suggested that cross-cultural sensitivity was an inadequate paradigm for the changes that were needed to improve services to children and families from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. A paradigm of cross-cultural competence (e.g., Cross et al., 1989; Wayman, Lynch, & Hanson, 1991; Isaacs & Benjamin, 1991; Wayman et al., 1991) emerged along with approaches to professional development that were both broader and more specific. The breadth of approaches was increased by the call for systemic as well as personal and programmatic change, and training strategies and approaches were more specific than those offered in the cultural sensitivity model.
Strategies for Enhancing Individual Competence
Some authors identified specific strategies for improving the cross-cultural competency of professionals in early childhood (Derman-Sparks & Phillips, 1997; NAEYC, 1996a) and early childhood special education (Anderson & Fenichel, 1989; Barrera & Kramer, 1997; Lynch & Hanson, 1993; 1998; Rosin et al., 1996). To summarize across these strategies, a common first step is developing a teacher’s cross-cultural sensitivity through self-awareness and the examination of one’s own cultural identity and values (Banks, 1995; Barrera & Kramer, 1997; Chan, 1990; Hyun & Marshall, 1997; Lynch & Hanson, 1998; NAEYC, 1996a; Sleeter, 1991). The goal is to facilitate movement of participants from "their own first-person single-ethnic perspective-taking…to enhance their multiple/multiethnic perspective-taking ability" (Hyun & Marshall, p. 188, 1997). Barrera and Kramer (1997) caution, however, that self-reflection extend beyond cultural diversity and "must encompass multiple aspects of how we identify and maintain the boundaries that both connect us to and separate us from the people with whom we interact" (p. 231). These authors also describe how strategies designed to increase awareness can "backfire" and reinforce stereotypes if not done well. For example, some participants in a multicultural workshop reported concerns about self-awareness activities because they experienced validation and reenactment of stereotypes (Barrera & Kramer, 1997). In addition, multicultural early childhood educators articulate that the participants need to examine more than just themselves; they need to examine how the dominant culture influences non-dominant groups in society in terms of oppression, exclusion, racism, and social injustice (Derman-Sparks & Phillips, 1997; Rethinking Schools, 1997).
Finally, across all disciplines, little information exists on the documentation of how to promote competencies: what are the materials and strategies that promote changes in multicultural attitudes, knowledge and skills? How are changes measured? The empirical basis for documenting the effectiveness of various strategies and techniques is addressed in the next section.
Strategies for Measuring and Evaluating Changes
A challenge across disciplines is how to assess cross-cultural competence in individual practitioners and measure change. For example, a researcher in counseling noted that while the need to prepare counselors to work more effectively with culturally diverse clients is widely recognized, "there is no research-supported consensus as to how best to train counselors for work in multicultural practice" (Ponterotto, p. 261, 1996). The lack of an empirical basis for promoting changes in attitudes, knowledge and skills of personnel is acknowledged in other disciplines as well (Campinha-Bacote, 1995; Krajewski-Jaime et al., 1996). Standardized instruments, surveys, and qualitative approaches are three ways that the impact of training has been evaluated.
A number of standardized instruments have been designed in the field of counseling (CCCI-R; MCAS:B; MCI; and MAKS) and nursing (CSES) to measure cross-cultural competence. Critiques of these instruments have identified numerous limitations (Pope-Davis & Dings, 1995; Ponterotto, Riefer, Barrett & Sparks, 1994). Four of the five instruments are based solely on self-report; only one measure (CCCI-R) is designed to be completed by an evaluator or supervisor. Ponterotto et al. (1994) described instrumentation as being in its infancy in terms of psychometric sophistication. Much needed are outcome studies that validate the extent to which actual behavior and supervisor or client’s assessments of competence are correlated with the self-report scores.
Self-report surveys are commonly used to measure changes in students’ attitudes and knowledge. For example, two studies documented positive changes in preschool teachers’ attitudes toward cultural diversity, knowledge of multicultural curriculum, and arrangement of preschool environments for promoting cultural awareness following on-site multicultural inservice programs (Jacoby, 1994; Sweigman, 1994). These researchers developed surveys to measure pre-test to post-test changes. Two other studies showed improvements in inservice participants’ knowledge. In one study, ten child care providers received a multicultural/multilingual inservice training program. The results revealed that all providers improved their responses on a 10-question multiple choice test about developmentally appropriate practices (Reginatto, 1993). Another study found that four teachers in a migrant Head Start center showed improved knowledge of migrant family lifestyle following a 10-week inservice training program (Bradford, 1995). Because of methodological limitations and the small numbers of subjects, these studies provide preliminary information on the effectiveness of on-site or inservice training as measured by self-report surveys.
Surveys have also been used to assess students within the context of individual supervision and mentoring in clinical settings (Brown, & Landrum-Brown, 1995; Fenichel, 1992; Fong & Lease, 1997; Krajewski-Jaime et al., 1996; Shanok, Gilkerson, Eggbeer, & Fenichel, 1995; Stone, 1997). Manoleas (1994) observed in a review article examining social workers in multicultural settings that "the single most important factor involved in any practitioner’s ability to effectively help clients from other cultural groups is prolonged exposure to people of that group" (p. 45, 1994). This perspective is also found in the literature from nursing (Campinha-Bacote, 1995), social work (Krajewski-Jaime et al., 1996), foreign language (Dickson, 1996), counseling psychology (McFadden, 1996), and multicultural education (Kappa Delta Pi, 1994).
Exposure without adequate supervision and support, however, may not result in increased self-perceptions of competence. For example, a study comparing the cross-cultural competence and cultural confidence of senior nursing students found that the students who received cultural content reported less competence and confidence than those who received no cultural course content (Alpers & Zoucha, 1996). Interestingly, the students who received cultural content coursework also were enrolled in ten weeks of home visits to African-American and Hispanic/Latino families. These results also suggest that ongoing support for students in practicum situations is important. Guidelines for assessing and promoting multicultural competence in students who receive cross-cultural content in coursework is also critical. The conundrum for evaluating the impact of training is that introductory work at the preservice level may lead to self-perceptions of incompetence which may be more realistic than those students who have no exposure (Alpers & Zoucha, 1996).
Additional support for the Alpers and Zoucha (1996) results is found in a study that examined 45 early childhood and elementary preservice students’ levels of comfort in teaching multicultural music lessons to diverse students (Barry, 1996). The preservice students (who were 95% white and 91% female) completed a questionnaire that presented 25 statements about multicultural teaching situations with a Likert-type response scale ranging from 5 (very comfortable) to 1 (very uncomfortable). They completed the questionnaire before the university music methods class and field experiences occurred (pretest) and at the end of the academic quarter (posttest). The results showed high pretest levels of comfort in multicultural situations. The comparison with posttest results showed increased comfort levels only in areas where students received specific instruction in the methods class (e.g., African-American spirituals).
Interestingly, pretest results showed high confidence levels in the preservice teachers’ ability to interact with diverse children and colleagues in that they did not need help nor could they see problem areas. Posttest results revealed that all teachers reported the need for additional instruction or help with problem areas. Furthermore, results obtained from journal entries and informal field observations indicated that the preservice students were not able to apply what they had learned in class to their field experiences (Barry, 1996).
Similarly, a self-assessment study of preservice students in early childhood methods courses asked students to reconnect what they learned regarding developmentally and culturally appropriate practices and multicultural education across their coursework (Hyun, 1995). Data revealed that the students’ most significant concern was "that their learning was neither meaningful nor adequate for them to really develop a practical approach for working with culturally diverse children…" (Hyun, 1995, p. 17).
Finally, the importance of direct experiences with diverse populations is verified in a survey study of 259 graduates from counseling and clinical psychology programs, in which former students were asked about their preservice preparation including classroom, practicum and internship experiences (Allison, Crawford, Echemendia et al., 1994). The results indicated limited opportunities with diverse groups at the preservice level. When graduates were asked open-ended questions about the most effective preservice experiences relevant to providing services to diverse groups, the top two responses were (a) having access to supervision relevant to diverse cases and (b) having internship experiences.
Thus, survey studies of student perceptions of cross-cultural competence may not show pre-test to post-test increases, and these studies suggest that adequate support and supervision are critical in developing cross-cultural skills.
Several disciplines have applied qualitative approaches to study student outcomes. For example, social work faculty designed undergraduate students’ international clinical experiences to include daily logs where the students’ reflected on their experiences and reactions. Faculty used the inter-cultural sensitivity scale to teach students how individuals move through ethnocentric stages to stages of ethnorelativism (Krajewski-Jaime et al., 1996). Then the students applied this developmental model to operationalize their own benchmarks and charted their progress toward their goals. The daily logs provided a record of student progress and opportunities for faculty to provide support as needed. The analysis of the logs showed that 80% of the 23 students in the program began the lifelong process of developing cultural competence (Krajewski-Jaime et al., 1996).
Another recent approach to evaluation is the use of portfolio assessment (Coleman, 1996). Coleman (1996) identified the following advantages to using a portfolio approach: encourages self-reflection and ongoing learning; promotes ownership of the learning process; and provides concrete evidence of someone’s competence. The portfolio approach addresses the concern expressed earlier about there being an ‘endpoint’ in the quest to develop multicultural skills. The portfolio implies an ongoing documentation of growth and development. A portfolio assembled for this purpose in early intervention might include products, such as a videotape of an interaction with a family or child, a collection of different types of assessments completed with different children with a rationale for the approach taken, or a series of progress notes related to a challenging case.
Often researchers use a combination of methods to measure changes. For example, one study examined the infusion of multicultural education into the language arts, classroom management, instruction, and computer applications courses for early childhood preservice students (Messner, 1993). Five female students (four white, one Mexican-American) participated in interviews and observations. The class observations revealed that, with the exception of the computer course, the students did hear multicultural issues and concerns in their coursework; however, they did not receive instruction on specific content or skills such as how to modify curriculum or instruction. Faculty referred to ethnicity and cultural effects in general, and their remarks were at the cultural awareness level. No formal assessment (e.g., quiz, exam) included multicultural items.
During interviews the students were asked to describe what they had learned in classes about teaching children from different cultures. The results showed that the four students who had taken or were concurrently enrolled in a multicultural education class demonstrated awareness that multicultural issues were discussed in their other early childhood classes; the one student who had not taken any courses in multicultural education heard nothing in the other classes. The four students reported hearing gender, race, and ethnicity issues raised in their classes; issues of class, religion, and exceptionality were not reported by the students (Messner, 1993). The students’ perceptions of their level of competence (e.g., as described by Alpers and Zoucha, 1996) were not assessed.
Hyun (1995) reported similar results in a study of five early childhood preservice teachers who were enrolled in an early childhood education university class and assigned one half day and one full day per week fieldwork experience in an early childhood classroom. The students completed an autobiographical self-awareness and diversity questionnaire and a multicultural needs self-assessment. Data were also collected from the students’ journals, audiotaped class discussions, lesson plans, structured interviews, and the instructor’s fieldwork notes. The preliminary results showed that the autobiographical self-assessment helped students develop diverse perspective-taking abilities; however, the students demonstrated limited application to their teaching in their field placements. For example, students reported knowledge of cultural diversity, but their journal entries reflected frustration in how to plan and implement developmentally and culturally appropriate practices. Likewise, their lesson plans reflected "a tourist kind of multicultural learning experience" (Hyun, 1995, p. 19) in which activities like holidays were planned.
Overall, the studies of early childhood preservice students (Hyun, 1995; Messner, 1993) illuminate the limited procedures and practices to adequately prepare students for culturally and linguistically diverse children and families. This research suggests that offering courses and field placements as currently constructed have limited impact on students’ attitudes. These results are consistent with other studies in disciplines such as multicultural education (Banks & Banks, 1995; Goodlad, 1984), multicultural counseling (Ponterotto, 1996), nursing (Alpers & Zoucha, 1996; Campinha-Bacote, 1995), and social work (Krajewski-Jaime et al., 1996).
Interestingly, across all of the studies reviewed, none employed systematic observation of student or teacher behaviors in classrooms or with families to examine multicultural training outcomes. Only one study described teachers’ classroom behavior as a way to document impact of cross-cultural competence training (Sweigman, 1994). This study used the Multicultural Classroom Rating Scale (York, 1992) for post-test observations of four workshop participants. Although the results revealed that these teachers included multicultural materials in their classrooms, the impact of the inservice training program on teacher behavior is difficult to assess because pre-testing observations did not occur.
In summary, a variety of approaches and strategies have been suggested to increase the cultural competence of individuals from a variety of disciplines. Few empirical studies have been completed thus far. Overall, the primary measurement of effectiveness has been self-reported changes in attitudes over relatively short periods of time. Little data exists which evaluates the effectiveness of techniques in terms of changes in participants’ knowledge, skills, or social actions. At this point, information is rarely gathered from practicum supervisors, employers, or consumers. If the stage-based and competency-based models suggest on-going development that occurs over time, then long-term assessment is needed to demonstrate effects. These endeavors are expensive, and few preservice or inservice programs can ask long-term questions; however, the investment is needed to improve training programs.
Models for Developing Culturally Competent Systems in Personnel Development
The largest number and greatest variety of resources and evaluation activities exist for preparing culturally competent individuals; fewer resources and less data are available for programs or systems addressing personnel development. Because personnel are prepared to work in service delivery systems which reflect the dominant culture’s orientation, modifications of the service system are needed to embrace the culture of the service recipients (Focal Point, 1994; Phillips, 1993). Human services organizations (Focal Point, 1994; Taylor, 1997), child welfare systems (Child Welfare League of America, 1993), and communities (Pang, Gay, & Stanley, 1995) recognize a growing need on the part of agencies and institutions to examine their systems in respect to serving increasingly diverse populations and becoming culturally competent. In the context of personnel development, higher education systems and professional organizations play an important role for systems change. The next section will examine two areas: counseling psychology, which has made a major investment in transforming higher education systems, and early childhood and early childhood special education, which are beginning to address systems change.
Counseling psychology provides a case example of moving the focus of developing cross-cultural competence from the individual level to the higher education system. In 1986 the American Psychological Association accreditation standards required graduate programs to provide multicultural preparation (APA, 1986), and the immediate result was the addition of a multicultural course in the counseling program curriculum (Ponterotto, 1997; Reynolds, 1995; Ridley, Espelage, & Rubinstein, 1997). Subsequently, many authors identified multiple challenges with the implementation of a single multicultural course: (a) the lack of a solid theoretical and research base for practice, (b) the brevity and lack of depth that a single course generates (e.g., focus on awareness, but not skills), (c) the risk of producing counterproductive attitudes (e.g., course is viewed as ancillary or seen as tokenism by faculty and students), (d) the illusion of adequate preparation (e.g., one course results in culturally competent counselors), (e) the lack of expertise in faculty to develop and implement courses, and (f) the lack of evaluation data to document the effectiveness of multicultural courses (Ponterotto, 1997; Reynolds, 1995; Ridley et al., 1997).
The early response by counseling programs to the APA standards of adding a multicultural course differs from more recent work which emphasizes the need to infuse multiculturalism in a more comprehensive fashion in counseling programs (Pope-Davis & Coleman, 1997). Broader efforts are underway to focus on both the individual and institutional: how to infuse multicultural competence into faculty and students, curriculum, fieldwork, and supervision (Sue, 1997). For example, researchers developed a specific guide to multicultural program development that includes a competency checklist for evaluating university preservice counseling programs (Ponterotto, Alexander, & Grieger, 1995).
In spite of this increased interest, the data from recent surveys of counseling programs indicate that (a) students report increased multicultural sensitivity but not perceived proficiency, and (b) very few programs demonstrate a commitment to cultural competence (Ponterotto, 1997). At this time, researchers have found few universities that transformed their curricula, but 89% of programs required at least one multicultural course (Ponterotto, 1997).
This example shows how a professional organization’s accreditation standards provided the impetus for systems change in higher education programs. It also illustrates a slow change process. The following section looks specifically at some of the organizational systems influencing early childhood and early childhood special education.
Early Childhood/Early Childhood Special Education
In the larger picture of teacher education, for two decades the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) guidelines have required that institutions of higher education desiring accreditation incorporate multicultural education and global perspectives in the curriculum for professional studies, so that new teachers are prepared to practice education that is multicultural (NCATE, 1979; 1992; 1994). Whether NCATE-accredited institutions produce more cross-culturally competent teachers than non-accredited institutions is largely unknown (Hyun, 1995).
In early childhood and early childhood special education, standards, competencies, and recommended practices are set forth by the organizations that share the greatest concern about professional development—the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the Division for Early Childhood/Council for Exceptional Children (DEC/CEC).
In a collaborative effort, NAEYC, DEC/CEC, and the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) developed the Guidelines for preparation of early childhood professionals (NAEYC, 1996b). These guidelines encompass early childhood education and early childhood special education preparation. While these guidelines address the importance of preparing personnel for cultural and linguistic diversity in general, other professional organization publications contain further information. The NAEYC positionstatement: Responding to Linguistic and Cultural Diversity—Recommendations for Effective Early Childhood Education (NAEYC, 1996a) provides two general recommendations for professional preparation and suggests some strategies for their implementation. The first recommendation is to provide early childhood educators with professional preparation and development in the areas of culture, language, and diversity. The goal is to assist early childhood educators in (a) understanding and appreciating their own cultural and linguistic backgrounds, (b) reflecting on how their cultural background affects how they interact with children and families, and (c) understanding the languages and cultural backgrounds of the children and families they serve so that they can respond appropriately. NAEYC suggests that preservice and inservice programs "consider providing specific courses in the following topic areas or include these issues in current courses: language acquisition, second-language learning, use of translators, working with diverse families, sociolinguistics, cross-cultural communication, politics of race, language and culture, and community involvement" (NAEYC, 1996a, p. 10).
The second NAEYC recommendation is to recruit and support early childhood educators who are multilingual and multicultural. The importance of early childhood educators who have an understanding of the sociocultural and economic issues relevant within the local linguistically and culturally diverse community is emphasized and their roles in programs are discussed at length.
Similarly, DEC’s recommended practices published in 1996 for personnel competence at the preservice level include five best practice indicators that address the importance of preparation for culturally and linguistically diverse populations: "(a) content includes study of cultural diversity, (b) field experiences provide opportunities to work with children both with and without disabilities who represent diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds, (c) students learn and practice assessment that is culturally unbiased and includes diagnosis for placement, assessment for developing IEP/IFSP goals and for planning individualized curriculum, performance monitoring, and evaluation of program effectiveness, (d) the preparation program’s full-time faculty, part-time instructors, and field supervisors represent the diverse ethnic and cultural groups served in programs for young children with disabilities and their families, and (e) the preparation program’s faculty and staff make efforts to recruit and retain members of ethnic and cultural minorities [sic] as students" (Odom & McLean, 1996, pp. 407-409). DEC’s recommended practices for inservice training did not specifically address cultural and linguistic diversity.
Move beyond an additive approach. The efforts of the professional organizations have helped to create growing recognition of the importance of preparing early childhood professionals for working in culturally and linguistically diverse settings. The typology of approaches to incorporating multicultural education into the university curriculum described by Banks (1993) is useful to guiding the discussion. He identified the following approaches: (1) contributions, (2) additive, (3) transformational, (4) decision-making and social action, (5) achievement approach, and (6) intergroup education approach. The contributions approach is reflected in curricula or standards that incorporate information about famous individuals and celebrations into the curriculum. The additive approach includes content about other cultures and worldviews, but does not change the basic structure of knowledge that is taught. The transformational approach focuses on different and multiple perspectives with the goal of having participants view issues from a different perspective. When the curriculum encourages individuals to reflect, make decisions, and take social and civic action, Banks (1993) describes the approach as decision-making and social action. Focusing on strategies that are designed to improve academic achievement for students with diverse needs is described as the achievement approach; and focusing on opportunities for individuals to view people unlike themselves more positively is referred to as the intergroup education approach. Some of the strategies may be used in combination, but the strategies that prevail tend to indicate the overall perspective that the organization holds toward cultural diversity and preparing people to become more culturally competent.
The current recommended practices’ approach to preparing the early childhood workforce to be culturally competent can be described as additive in terms of Banks’ typology. That is, training and experience related to cultural competence are added to the existing curriculum; but the overall curriculum has not been significantly changed.
One of the primary challenges faced by states in responding to the personnel demands associated with Part C of IDEA is that the skills and knowledge required of the early childhood workforce in the 1990s are dramatically different than those required in the previous decade (Buysse & Wesley, 1993). The changes in required skills are the result of the development of new models of service delivery that are associated with evolving philosophies about how to best serve young children with disabilities and their families (Winton & McCollum, 1997). For example, there is an increased emphasis on reflective practice, family empowerment and interdisciplinary collaboration, but the practices are not presented in relation to issues of diversity. Although infusing training and opportunities to practice skills related to cross-cultural competence is laudable, a reexamination of the field’s approach to preparing a culturally competent workforce may be necessary--particularly since preliminary data suggest that the integration of coursework with practicum is missing for many preservice students. Across disciplines, scholars acknowledge that professionals will not become cross-culturally competent until preservice preparation programs become cross-culturally competent and move from equalizing access (e.g., enrolling students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds) to including cultural and linguistic diversity within the infrastructure of the programs (Morey & Kitano, 1997; Phillips, 1993; Ponterotto, 1996).
Examine the hidden curriculum. The focus of NCATE, NAEYC and DEC/CEC on developing cross-cultural competence was on explicit issues. None of these groups identified issues related to the hidden curriculum: "those attitudes, policies, actions, non-actions, behaviors, practices, and objects that lurk beneath the surface of the day-to-day operation of . . . education" (Jones & Young, 1997, p. 89). All actions or non-actions are predicated on one or more sets of values and beliefs (e.g., child rearing practices, family routines, etc.). This is equally true for services for young children with disabilities, for staff development activities, and for college and university classrooms. The values and beliefs that predominate are typically those of the group in power. As Jones and Young (1997) point out, "the hidden curriculum we unknowingly perpetuate represents an ideology, thought, and action that works to both perpetuate power relationships, cultural hegemony, and political relationships and to impede the progress of those without the ability to identify and understand its existence" (p. 93). Until professional development is developed and conducted by trainers who represent a wide range of cultures, languages, and worldviews, the goals and outcomes of training will not be fully representative of the needs. Diverse leadership in all facets of the education arena is essential; however, subtle forms of racism may interfere with career development (National Black Child Development Institute [NBCDI], 1993).
Address Staff Development Practices. Second, the expansion of recommended practices to include the key components of effective staff development will assist the field in designing culturally competent training programs. Neither NAEYC or DEC/CEC directly address the research and theories of adult learning which provide important information about how to effectively train early interventionists in the process skills associated with cross-cultural competence or systemic changes in institutions. A summary of that research, based on literature reviews and data-based studies (Fullan, 1993; Guskey, 1986; Havelock & Havelock, 1973; McLaughlin, 1991;Winton, 1990; Winton, Catlett, & Houck, 1996), indicates the following factors are important.
Both a "top-down" and "bottom-up" approach are necessary. It must be recognized that change is both an individual process and an organizational/systems process. Research has consistently demonstrated that efforts to make change must address both the "top" and the "bottom" simultaneously and in a consistent, integrated fashion. (Fullan, 1993; Guskey, 1986; Sparks, 1995; Winton, 1990). This suggests that strategies for enhancing individual competence must take place in concert with efforts to modify institutions and programs. This kind of commitment to promoting individual and institutional change requires strong leadership. Given the documented lack of diversity in the ranks of early childhood leaders (NBCDI, 1993), a legitimate question is, "do our leaders have the will and commitment to pursue an agenda for increasing diversity in our ranks and for promoting the cultural competency of the workplace and workforce?" One of the themes that emerged in a recent state-wide brainstorming session on diversity in North Carolina was "lip service"; that is, the perception that institutional leaders make token attempts in dealing with diversity (Winton, 1996). In fact, one study showed that although teacher education faculty subscribed to the ideals of social justice and fairness in regard to teaching diverse learners, they did not necessarily translate those ideals into their views of curriculum design and implementation, assessment, or classroom organization (Tatto, 1996). This information suggests that leaders have as much, if not more, to learn about diversity as do service providers who have more direct contact with different perspectives and points of view through their work with children and families.
Collegial support is critical. Research has consistently demonstrated the important role that collegial support plays in the change process (Guskey, 1995; Winton et al., 1996). Educators consistently turn to colleagues when they seek new information (Rothenberg, 1995). University and community college teachers cite collegial support as a major facilitator to their attempts to employ new ideas and embed new content into their existing early childhood training programs (Winton et al, 1996). The documented absence of ethnically and linguistically diverse faculty, professionals, and graduate students create challenges in terms of creating opportunities for sharing personal perspectives and developing self-awareness through naturally occurring events. Mentoring and coaching are strategies designed to support professional growth through collegial relationships and support. A strategy for increasing cultural competence would be to pair individuals around the topic of diversity for mutual sharing and growth. The National Black Child Development Institute has developed a national mentoring network (NBCDI, n.d.) and a series of local affiliate chapters. Participating in these initiatives could provide leaders and practitioners with opportunities to develop collegial support around diversity issues.
Think BIG, start small. Research has consistently shown that it is important to establish a common vision shared across all stakeholders that identifies what kinds of changes are desired; however, small, manageable steps must be identified so that success is possible and immediate. Identifying how new ideas can mesh with existing structures and approaches increases the likelihood that innovations will succeed. (Guskey, 1986; Melaville & Blank, 1991; Winton, 1990). As mentioned earlier much attention has been paid to building skills in the areas of family-professional and interprofessional collaboration. These efforts have not necessarily incorporated a diversity perspective. Building this perspective into these professional development activities and initiatives would be one way of addressing competence at the individual level.
Engage the participants in experiential activities. Instructional strategies that invite learners to actively problem-solve and collectively generate solutions to the kinds of dilemmas and challenges they face or will face in the workplace have been shown to be most effective in changing practices (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1992; Little, 1993). Activities should be varied and responsive to different styles of learning (Wolfe, 1994). Research cited earlier suggests that superficial exposure to diversity issues without opportunities and support for applying the ideas does not lead to meaningful change. One of the challenges is that we lack data on effective strategies and activities for enhancing competence. One of the contributions of the CLAS Institute is the identification and field-testing of exemplary training resources. This information will be useful to faculty and trainers who need validated strategies for promoting individual competence around diversity issues.
Include procedures for ongoing support, feedback, and monitoring. Research has consistently shown the important role of ongoing feedback, technical assistance, and support for reform efforts, especially when they involve complex changes such as those associated with developing cultural competence (Gersten, Vaughn, Deshler, & Schiller, 1995; Guskey, 1986; Wolfe, 1994). Bureaucratic roadblocks and unexpected happenings are a threat to reforms and changes in practices at every step of the way (Havelock & Havelock, 1973; Winton et al., 1997). The tendency to give "lip service" to diversity issues often means that one-shot workshops and modules on cultural competence are the norm in terms of staff support and professional development. These approaches do not provide the kind of ongoing feedback and monitoring that leads to meaningful change. The lack of diverse leadership suggests that supervision around diversity issues may not be given adequate attention. A challenge for early childhood is how to build in the kinds of supports needed to sustain individual and institutional efforts at building cultural competence.
Applications of these ideas about the change process to inservice training for early interventionists (Bailey, McWilliam, & Winton, 1992; Winton, McWilliam, Harrison, et al., 1992) and faculty who train early interventionists (Winton et al., 1996; Winton, 1996) have resulted in positive outcomes in terms of changes in practices. However, models incorporating these principles have not been specifically focused on increasing the cultural competence of early interventionists. Developing models for promoting cultural competence in individuals, programs and systems that reflect the principles of the change process will be an important goal for early childhood intervention.
Consider the impact of technology. Finally, technology is changing the nature of higher education and professional development. Programs offered via satellite links, compressed video, and internet-based media will continue to proliferate. Efforts to develop the "virtual university" will revolutionize teaching and learning in higher education. Traditional programs must "either embrace this new virtual world or become less relevant in the value it adds to society" (Van Dusen, 1998, p. 2). Many of the activities suggested to develop cultural competence involve interactions--with class participants, parents, service providers, community representatives, agency leaders, and faculty. The distance teaching and learning applications are being developed—will they attend to cultural and linguistic diversity? For example, a review of children’s software found that "one can notice a steady improvement in cultural diversity and accuracy in trade books, but the same is not true for educational software" (Miller-Lachmann, 1994, p. 30). The lack of attention to cultural and linguistic diversity in software seems surprising given the concern over children’s books. Will the same lack of attention to diversity occur for personnel training activities, courses, or programs offered through new technologies?
Summary of Key Points and Future Directions
Many human services disciplines recognize that preparing diverse personnel to serve culturally and linguistically diverse populations is an important goal. Progress is being made at the individual and systems levels; however, it is a complex process. Overall, the training materials described in the literature are primarily at the cultural awareness or cultural sensitivity level. Personnel materials and research that focus on transformation and activism approaches are future areas for development (Banks, 1993; Derman-Sparks & Phillips, 1997). Similarly, little research exists on what works or does not work in developing cross-cultural competence in individuals or systems. At present, evaluation of training activities is at the individual level, is short-term in nature and relies on participant self-report for changes in attitudes or knowledge. Evaluation at the systems level, over the long-term, with multiple sources of information is needed. The goal of ensuring a diverse, representative workforce must be a priority in training programs. Because very few leaders represent a wide range of cultural, linguistic and socioeconomic backgrounds (NBCDI, 1993), partnerships with family members, community providers, and representatives from grassroots organizations will be key for designing change and for addressing the challenging issues of power and privilege.
Taken together, reform efforts in the last decade have brought about massive changes in how we define competent and qualified early childhood and early intervention practitioners (Bredekamp, 1992; Buysse & Wesley, 1993). Understanding and appreciating the backgrounds, traditions, languages, and terminologies associated with different individuals, families, disciplines, agencies, and organizational "cultures" have become important skills. The Chinese symbol for crisis, consisting as it does of two characters....one representing danger and the other representing opportunity.... might be appropriately considered in this discussion of personnel development challenges and reform efforts in addressing cultural and linguistic diversity.
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York, S. (1992). Developing
roots and wings: A trainer’s guide to affirming culture in early
childhood programs. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Barrera, I. (1993). Effective and appropriate instruction for all children: The challenge of cultural/linguistic diversity and young children with special needs. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 13(4), 461-487.
Barrera (1993) discusses the challenge of providing effective and appropriate instruction for cultural and linguistic diversity and young children with special needs. The intervention concerns existing in multicultural bilingual special education are reviewed, and the implications for early childhood special education (ECSE) are described. Intervention strategies for key variables such as acculturation, preferred interactive and learning behaviors, sociocultural experiences and resources, and language usage and proficiency are suggested in light of a combination of literature and the author's experience. Four intervention approaches developed within project CROSSROADS are integrated to meet the needs of early childhood service providers in a variety of settings.
This article provides direction for professionals to determine the problems raised in the field of early childhood special education. The project conducted demonstrates an integration of theory, and this encourages teacher educators to develop programs which prepare qualified personnel in ECSE.
Barrera, I., & Kramer, L. (1997). From monologues to skilled dialogues: Teaching the process of crafting culturally competent early childhood environments. In P.J. Winton, J. A. McCollum, & C. Catlett (Eds.), Reforming personnel preparation in early intervention: Issues, models, and practical strategies (pp. 217-251). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Barrera and Kramer (1997) describe the need for and challenges of cultural competence in terms of issues emerged in both research and experience. Issues such as changing demographics, meeting children's needs, and providing pedagogical principles are discussed. A glossary of terms and activities are provided to help teacher educators promote students' attitudes, understandings, and skills in preservice and inservice settings.
This article outlines resources regarding important concepts on culture and explains concepts clearly. Preservice and inservice teachers can gain knowledge to be more culturally competent. A variety of activities help teacher educators assess if teachers can apply theory to practice. This is a readable article in which both theory and practice are emphasized.
Harry, B. (1992). Developing cultural self-awareness: The first step in values clarification for early interventionists. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 12 (3), 333-350.
Harry (1992) argues that early interventionists are facing challenges of meeting the needs of children and families whose cultural beliefs are different from theirs. Therefore, the author examines literature on cultural differences and identifies five areas to help professionals understand concepts: the meaning of disability, concepts of family structure and identity, parenting style, goals of early childhood intervention, communication styles, and views of professionals' roles. In addition, the nature of culture is influenced by different variations within cultural groups. Cultural self-awareness establishes the foundation for professionals to develop effective collaboration with culturally different families.
This article provides a valuable background for professionals to clarify their cultural awareness in areas where variation influences cultures differently. Indeed, professionals can examine their beliefs and values, and further adjust their intervention strategies in terms of meeting the needs of children and families from diverse backgrounds.
Resources
Diversity and Communication [Video]
Janet Gonzalez-Mena
Milan Herzog
Shanta Herzog
Summary
This videotape features
a group of culturally diverse early childhood educators enacting and critiquing
role-playing exercises based on cross-cultural parent-teacher conference
scenarios. Common areas of miscommunication are first demonstrated and
examined, including gaps in key vocabulary and cultural differences. The
RERUN model of communicative problem solving is then introduced, with
each of its five components (Reflect, Explain, Reason, Understand, and
Negotiate) demonstrated and discussed. An overall emphasis is placed on
active listening skills and demonstrating respect for parents and their
cultural values.
Bibliographic Information
Janet Gonzalez-Mena, Milan Herzog, Shanta Herzog. Diversity and Communication
[Video] (1996). Magna Systems, Inc.: Crystal Lake, IL. Language: English.
Availability
May be ordered from:
Magna Systems
101 N. Virginia St., #105
Crystal Lake, IL 60014
(800) 203-7060 phone
(815) 459-4280 fax
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: This publication is intended for all those involved with the care of children (birth-5 years) in school or child care settings: parents and early childhood administrators, pre-service students, faculty and trainers, service delivery personnel, and paraprofessionals. The viewers could be of any level of experience. The people in the videos are of European American, Asian American, Latino, and African American backgrounds; but the videos are intended for all cultural groups.
- Product Development: Nine early childhood professionals of diverse cultural backgrounds (European American, Asian American, African American and Latino) developed the series with funding from Magna Systems, a private company. The series is intended for teacher training for early childhood education programs and child care programs. Please note that the videos in the Early Childhood Training: Diversity series are accompanied by a manual entitled: "Early Childhood Training," which is also available from Magna Systems.
- Product Evaluation: The videos have been reviewed in various early childhood journals but were not field-tested prior to distribution.
- Product Dissemination: The videos have been sold nationwide.
Diversity and Conflict Management [Video]
Janet Gonzalez-Mena
Milan Herzog
Shanta Herzog
Summary
This videotape features
a group of culturally diverse early childhood educators enacting and critiquing
role-playing exercises based on cross-cultural parent-teacher conference
scenarios. Common areas of miscommunication are first demonstrated and
examined, including gaps in key vocabulary and cultural differences. The
RERUN model of communicative problem solving is then introduced, with
each of its five components (Reflect, Explain, Reason, Understand, and
Negotiate) demonstrated and discussed. An overall emphasis is placed on
active listening skills and demonstrating respect for parents and their
cultural values.
Bibliographic Information
Janet Gonzalez-Mena,
Milan Herzog, Shanta Herzog. Diversity and Conflict Management [Video]
(1996). Magna Systems, Inc.: Crystal Lake, IL. Language: English.
Availability
May be ordered from:
Magna Systems
101 N. Virginia St., #105
Crystal Lake, IL 60014
(800) 203-7060 phone
(815) 459-4280 fax
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: This publication is intended for all those involved with the care of children (birth-5 years) in school or child care settings: parents and early childhood administrators, pre-service students, faculty and trainers, service delivery personnel, and paraprofessionals. The viewers could be of any level of experience. The people in the videos are of European American, Asian American, Latino, and African American backgrounds; but the videos are intended for all cultural groups.
- Product Development: Nine early childhood professionals of diverse cultural backgrounds (European American, Asian American, African American and Latino) developed the series with funding from Magna Systems, a private company. The series is intended for teacher training for early childhood education programs and child care programs. Please note that the videos in the Early Childhood Training: Diversity series are accompanied by a manual entitled: "Early Childhood Training," which is also available from Magna Systems.
- Product Evaluation: The videos have been reviewed in various early childhood journals but were not field-tested prior to distribution.
- Product Dissemination: The videos have been sold nationwide.
El Hablar y el Jugar: El
Lenguaje es la Clave [Video]
Talking and Play: Language is the Key [Video]
Angela Notari-Syverson
Mary Maddox
Kevin Cole
Summary
This Spanish language
videotape is intended for use as part of a package consisting of a training
manual entitled A Multilingual Language Building Program for Young Children
(manual is in English but contains some Spanish language handouts) and
one other videotape (El Hablar y los Libros). Together, these materials
comprise a program addressing the needs of early childhood professionals
and paraprofessionals who work with young children with language disabilities,
including those from linguistic minority backgrounds. This tape is the
cornerstone of a workshop session in which participants view the videotape
and practice strategies for facilitating children's language during play
activities. The tape itself illustrates the role of language in everyday
life, and briefly describes how young children develop language. The overall
teaching approach used is "Follow the Child's Lead," and is suggested
and demonstrated in combination with communication strategies taught in
the first videotape.
Bibliographic Information
Mary Maddox, Kevin Cole. El Hablar y el Jugar: El Lenguaje es la Clave
[Video] [Talking and Play: Language is the Key - Spanish Version] (1999).
Washington Research Institute: Seattle, WA. Language: Spanish and English.
Availability
Price includes set of videos and training manual entitled A Multilingual
Language Building Program for Young Children. Materials are free to attendees
at Washington Training Institute workshops.
May be ordered from:
Washington Research
Institute
150 Nickerson St., Suite 305
Seattle, WA 98109
(206) 285-9317 phone
(206) 285-1523 fax
http://www.walearning.com/products/language-is-the-key/ web
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: These materials are intended for parents, service delivery personnel, pre-service students, faculty/trainers, and paraprofessionals. The fields the material is meant for include early childhood special education, early childhood education and speech pathology. Users of the material should be at an introductory/ beginning level of knowledge about language facilitation techniques.
- Product Development: As mentioned in the abstract, the purpose of this material is to prepare professionals, paraprofessionals, and parents to use simple language facilitation techniques to support development of heritage language in young children with language delays as well as typically developing children. People who participated in the development of the videos and manual include child actors age 3-5, administrators, parents, faculty, service delivery personnel and paraprofessionals. The cultural/ethnic groups of people involved in material development included Mexican American, Puerto Rican, Caribbean American (all Spanish-speaking); also African American and Euro-Americans participated in this program, and English predecessors. Some translation of introductory material has been done by Rosita Romero, M.Ed., early childhood educator from Columbia.
- Product Evaluation: The material was evaluated in the State of Washington by parents, faculty members, paraprofessionals, service delivery personnel, and pre-service students. Early childhood education, speech pathology and early childhood special education were the fields represented by evaluators. Approximately 75% of the people involved in the evaluation were Mexican American, 10% Caribbean, 10% "other South American" and 5% were Euro-American. There is a research study underway evaluating effectiveness of techniques demonstrated in the videos with immigrant Spanish-speaking families in Washington. Additional research has been completed with Korean American families (using the English versions of the video.)
- Product Dissemination: 350 copies have been disseminated nationally since January 1999, as well as at Department of Defense schools overseas; also, Mexico and Canada.
El Hablar y los Libros:
El Lenguaje es la Clave [Video]
Talking and Books:
Language is the Key [Video]
Angela Notari-Syverson
Mary Maddox
Kevin Cole
Summary
This Spanish language
videotape is intended for use as part of a package consisting of a training
manual entitled A Multilingual Language Building Program for Young Children.
Manual is in English but contains some Spanish language handouts. One
other videotape (El Hablar y el Jugar) is included. Together, these materials
comprise a program addressing the needs of early childhood professionals
and paraprofessionals who work with young children with language disabilities,
including those from linguistic minority backgrounds. This tape is the
cornerstone of a workshop session in which participants view the videotape
and practice three strategies for facilitating children's language during
picture book reading. These strategies are: "Comment and Wait," "Ask a
Question and Wait," and "Respond by Adding a Little More." The tape begins
by illustrating the role of language in everyday life, and briefly describes
how young children develop language. The role of adults in assisting this
process, especially through the use of picture books, is emphasized.
Bibliographic Information
Mary Maddox, Kevin
Cole. El Hablar y los Libros: El Lenguaje es la Clave [Video] [Talking
and Books: Language is the Key - Spanish Version] (1999). Washington Research
Institute: Seattle, WA. Language: Spanish and English.
Availability
Price includes set of videos and training manual entitled A Multilingual
Language Building Program for Young Children. Materials are free to attendees
at Washington Training Institute workshops.
May be ordered from:
Washington Research
Institute
150 Nickerson St., Suite 305
Seattle, WA 98109
(206) 285-9317 phone
(206) 285-1523 fax
http://www.wri-edu.org/ web
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: These materials are intended for parents, service delivery personnel, pre-service students, faculty/trainers, and paraprofessionals. The fields the material is meant for include early childhood special education, early childhood education and speech pathology. Users of the material should be at an introductory/ beginning level of knowledge about language facilitation techniques.
- Product Development: As mentioned in the abstract, the purpose of this material is to prepare professionals paraprofessionals, and parents to use simple language facilitation techniques to support development of heritage language in young children with language delays a: well as typically developing children. People who participated in the development o: the videos and manual include child actors age 3-5, administrators, parents, faculty, service delivery personnel and paraprofessionals. The cultural/ethnic groups of people involved in material development included Mexican American, Puerto Rican Caribbean American (all Spanish-speaking); also African American and Euro-Americans participated in this program, and English predecessors. Some translation of introductory material has been done by Rosita Romero, M.Ed., early childhood educator from Columbia.
- Product Evaluation: The material was evaluated in the State of Washington by parents, faculty members, paraprofessionals, service delivery personnel, and pre-service students. Early childhood education, speech pathology and early childhood special education were the fields represented by evaluators. Approximately 75% of the people involved in the evaluation were Mexican American, 10% Caribbean, 10% "other South American" and 5% were Euro-American. There is a research study underway evaluating effectiveness of techniques demonstrated in the videos with immigrant Spanish-speaking families in Washington. Additional research has been completed with Korean Ameri can families (using the English versions of the video.)
- Product Dissemination: 350 copies have been disseminated nationally since January 1999, as well as at Department of Defense schools overseas; also, Mexico and Canada.
Essential Connections: Ten Keys to Culturally Sensitive Care [Video]
The California Department
of Education
Child Development Division
Center for Child and
Family Studies, WestEd
Summary
Culture is the fundamental
building block of identity. Through cultural learning, children gain a
feeling of belonging, a sense of personal history, and a security in knowing
who they are and where they come from. When young children are cared for
by their parents and other family members, the process of cultural learning
occurs naturally. When children must be cared for outside the home, it
is important that they receive culturally sensitive care. Culturally sensitive
care strengthens a child's emerging sense of self and connection with
his or her family. This video, with accompanying brochure, recommends
ways to structure and run childcare programs for infants and toddlers
to strengthen children's connections with their families and home culture.
The first five recommendations presented in the video establish a framework
for addressing cultural issues. Within that framework, the video's second
five recommendations focus on the give and take in the culturally diverse
world of infant-toddler care. The 10 recommendations are the following:
(a) provide cultural consistency, (b) work toward representative staffing,
(c) create small groups, (d) use the home language, (e) make environments
relevant, (f) uncover your cultural beliefs, (g) be open to the perspectives
of others, (h) seek out cultural and family information, (i) clarify values,
and (j) negotiate cultural conflicts.
Bibliographic Information
The California Department of Education, Child Development Division,
Center for Child and Family Studies, WestEd. Essential Connections. Ten
Keys to Culturally Sensitive Care [Video] (1995). California Department
of Education: Sacramento, CA. Language: English, Chinese, and Spanish.
Availability
May be ordered from:
The California Department
of Education
Attn.: Mary Smithberger, Educational Programs
Consultant
Child Development Division
560 J St., Suite 220
Sacramento, CA 95814
(800) 995-4099 phone
http://www.pitc.org/ web
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: The Program for Infant/Toddler Caregivers was developed primarily for professional providers working in family childcare homes and centers serving children zero to three years old. Beginners and individuals with advanced level of experience will find these materials useful. These materials were developed for a universal population. These materials may be used in a variety of settings, including inservice training and college settings. These materials were initially developed for use in the state of California. However, they are being used throughout the United States and its territories.
- Product Development: These materials were developed through funding received from the California Department of Education and various private foundations. For more information regarding funding sources, please contact WestEd. The staff of the California Department of Education and WestEd collaboratively developed these materials with the help of practitioners, administrators, and nationally-recognized experts from the field of early education with a focus on children ages zero to three years. In addition, film experts assisted in the development of the videos. A California-based professional translator did the Spanish translation of the materials. An early childhood professional and translator did the Chinese (Cantonese) translation of the materials.
- Product Evaluation: The developers of these materials are in the process of evaluating the project and the module training institutes. Based on anecdotal reports from users (e.g., practitioners, trainers, and experts), these materials have been highly rated and are well received. The program has also been awarded a Golden Apple award from the National Educational Film Festival.
- Product Dissemination: As of 1998, over 150,000 copies of these materials have been distributed and sold in the United States (including its territories), Australia, Israel, Italy, Korea, Mexico, and New Zealand.
Protective Urges: Working with the Feelings of Parents and Caregivers [Video] - Spanish Language Voice-Over
California Department of Education, WestEd, Far West Regional Education Laboratory
Summary
Designed for caregivers,
this Spanish language videotape discusses the natural protective urges
parents and caregivers feel toward infants and young children. This protectiveness
can cause conflicts. Parental
concerns about child care are provided, as well as strategies to help
parents feel more comfortable with caregivers. The video emphasizes parents'
needs for understanding, competency, and honesty from caregivers.
Bibliographic Information
California Department
of Education, WestEd, Far West Regional Education Laboratory. Protective
Urges: Working with the Feelings of Parents and Caregivers [Spanish Language
Voice Over - Video] (1990). California Department of Education and WestEd:
Sacramento, CA. Language: English, Chinese, and Spanish.
Availability
May be ordered from:
The California Department
of Education and WestEd
Bureau of Publications, Sales Unit
560 J St., Suite 220
Sacramento, CA 95814
(800) 995-4099 phone
http://www.pitc.org/ web
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: The Program for Infant/Toddler Caregivers was developed primarily for professional providers working in family childcare homes and centers serving children zero to three years old. Beginners and individuals with advanced level of experience will find these materials useful. These materials were developed for a universal population. These materials may be used in a variety of settings including inservice training and college settings. These materials were initially developed for use in the state of California. However, they are being used throughout the United States and its territories.
- Product Development: These materials were developed through funding received from the California Department of Education and various private foundations. For more information regarding funding sources, please contact WestEd. The staff of the California Department of Education and WestEd collaboratively developed these materials with the help of practitioners, administrators, and nationally-recognized experts from the field of early education with a focus on children ages zero to three years. In addition, film experts assisted in the development of the videos. A California-based professional translator did the Spanish translation of the materials. An early childhood professional and translator did the Chinese (Cantonese) translation of the materials.
- Product Evaluation: The developers of these materials are in the process of evaluating the project and the module training institutes. Based on anecdotal reports from users (e.g., practitioners, trainers, and experts), these materials have been highly rated and are well received. The program has also been awarded a Golden Apple award from the National Educational Film Festival.
- Product Dissemination: As of 1998, over 150,000 copies of these materials have been distributed and sold in the United States (including its territories), Australia, Israel, Italy, Korea, Mexico, and New Zealand.
Creating a Multicultural School Climate for Deaf Children and Their Families
Marilyn Sass-Lehrer
Barbara Gerner de Garcia
Michele Rovins
Summary
Designed for practitioners,
this book provides guidelines to help build a multicultural learning environment
for students with deafness and their families. Strategies are provided
for developing cultural competence, and for improving home/school relationships
and encouraging greater participation of families who are not part of
the mainstream culture. Strategies that can help schools create more inclusive
curricula and instructional approaches are also provided and include:
(a) create a family atmosphere in the classroom; (b) integrate study of
the languages, history, customs, and perspectives of different peoples
throughout the curriculum; (c) approach the study of holidays and historic
events from the perspectives of all the peoples involved; (d) utilize
learner-centered rather than teacher-directed classroom approaches; (e)
encourage students to use dialogue journals and other ways of sharing
their experiences; (f) provide learning environments that are student-centered;
(g) form planning groups of students and teachers to design thematic units
that reflect issues and themes relevant to their lives; and (h) encourage
family and community members to participate in every aspect of the instructional
program. Recommendations are also provided for choosing materials and
staff development. Suggested teacher materials and World Wide Web resources
are included.
Bibliographic Information
Marilyn Sass-Lehrer, Barbara Gerner de Garcia, Michele Rovins. Creating
a Multicultural School Climate for Deaf Children and Their Families (1997).
PreCollege National Mission Programs/Gallaudet University: Washington,
DC. (19 pages). Language: English.
Availability
May be ordered from:
Pre-College National Mission Programs/Gallaudet University
Publications and Marketing
800 Florida Ave. - NE
Gallaudet University: KDES PAS 6
Washington, DC 20002
(202) 651-5530 phone
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: The intended audience includes all those involved in the education of children who are deaf or hard of hearing or who come from families with deaf or hard of hearing members. Parents/family members, service delivery personnel, and teachers and administrators can also use this material.
- Product Development: Written by three European American authors who are teacher trainers/teachers in the field of deaf/hard of hearing education.
- Product Evaluation: The material has not been formally evaluated or field tested.
- Product Dissemination: Three thousand copies of the material have been disseminated throughout the U.S.A.
Cross-Cultural Teaching Tales
Judith Kleinfeld (Ed.)
Summary
This book compiles 23 teachers' short anecdotes about their experiences
with crosscultural encounters in the classroom and elsewhere in their
professional lives. Stories are organized into the following three sections:
"Starting Out in a New Cultural Scene," "Clashes in Cultural Rules and
Values," and "Across Generational, Class, and Institutional Cultures."
Tales were gathered in a graduate program at the University of Alaska
in Fairbanks, and so many stories focus on Native Alaskan cultures.
Bibliographic Information
Judith Kleinfeld
(Ed.). Cross-Cultural Teaching Tales (1989). Center for CrossCultural
Studies: Fairbanks, AK. Language: English.
Availability
May be ordered from:
Center for Cross-Cultural
Studies
College of Rural Alaska
University of Alaska Fairbanks
Fairbanks, AK 99712
(907) 474-5831 phone
fypress@uaf.edu e-mail
Also available online
at the CLAS Web site.
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: This book was written for pre-service and experienced teachers who work with culturally diverse children. It is also of some interest to all early intervention service providers who deal with these children.
- Product Development: The author used anecdotal information to write the book. Most contributors were of European American background. The book was written primarily for teachers of Alaska natives but is applicable for teachers of any indigenous group, e.g. Native Americans. The book has been used with the indigenous populations of Australia, as well.
- Product Evaluation: The book has not been field tested.
- Product Dissemination: An unknown number of books have been distributed.
Culturally Competent Service Delivery: A TrainingManual for Bilingual/Bicultural Casemanagers
Dorothy M. Yonemitsu
James O. Cleveland
Summary
This manual was
written to assist health care and related agencies in recognizing the
need for trained bilingual and bicultural casemanagers. Important aspects
of the training program
are discussed for the effective delivery of services to people from Cambodian,
Hmong, Laotian, and Vietnamese refugee families with children ages 05
who have health problems or genetic disorders or who are at risk or have
developmental disabilities. The training model, however, may be adapted
for use with other underserved populations. The structure and administrative
organization of the Southeast Asian Developmental Disability Prevention
Program (SEADD) are described, as are the responsibilities of SEADD project
staff. Case management, intake, and ongoing services provided are described
and illustrated through case vignettes. Background information is given
about the cultures, immigration conditions, and health care needs of the
Southeast Asian refugee population in San Diego County, California, followed
by data on high-risk infant eligibility criteria and the incidence of
various health problems. After identifying specific implications of these
factors for providers, the manual lists key community resources. Appendices
include a developmental
assessment outline, an infant care handbook, SEADD Project job descriptions,
and topics for staff training.
Bibliographic Information
Dorothy M. Yonemitsu,
James O. Cleveland. Culturally Competent Service Delivery: A Training
Manual for Bilingual/Bicultural Casemanagers (1992). Southeast Asian Developmental
Disabilities Project (SEADD): San Diego, CA. Language: English.
Availability
May be ordered from:
Southeast Asian Developmental
Disabilities Project (SEADD)
San Diego Regional Center for the Developmentally Disabled
4355 Ruffin Rd., Suite 204
San Diego, CA 92123
(619) 576-2996 phone
Also available online
at the CLAS Web site.
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: This module was written primarily for service delivery personnel in the fields of education and allied health. It may also be useful for faculty and trainers, paraprofessionals, and pre-service students in a variety of fields. It provides introductory level information to help service providers understand and serve Southeast Asian refugee families, and ultimately other cultural groups with similar needs. The module was written for service providers who are proficient in English and in another language (bilingual). This module was developed for individuals working with Southeast Asian refugee families throughout the United States. "Although designed specifically for this target population, the authors believe that the model of training developed can be easily adapted to the training of casemanagers from any underserved culturally diverse group."
- Product Development: This material was developed as part of the Southeast Asian Developmental Disabilities Prevention Project and the Southeast Asian Developmental Disabilities Project (SEADD II) funded by the Maternal and Child Health Bureau SPRANS grants. Case managers participated in the development of this material. In general, participants represented the Southeast Asian population (Hmong, Laotian, Vietnamese, and Cambodian).
- Product Evaluation: Evaluation of this manual was done using Parent Satisfaction Surveys. Family members who were the recipients of services delivered through this project participated in the evaluation. At the time of the evaluation, family participants resided in San Diego County in California.
- Product Dissemination: As of 1998, 300 copies had been distributed and sold all across the United States.
Developing Culturally Competent Programs forFamilies of Children with Special Needs
Richard N. Roberts
Summary
This monograph provides
a framework for programs, states, and organizations to think about the
issues in developing culturally competent programs for families of children
with special needs. It offers a variety of examples from programs across
the country that are providing exemplary services. The monograph is designed
to help program developers compare their efforts with others, to provide
options for planning additional services or altering services in existing
programs, or to develop new programs. Monograph sections cover the following
topics: (a) general issues in developing culturally competent programs
as they relate to community-based familycentered care; (b) specific issues
in policy and practice, such as assessment, outreach, family involvement,
staffing, use of translators, client load, professional-paraprofessional
partnerships, and training and support; and (c) descriptions of programs
funded by the Bureau of Maternal and Child Health that serve families
in several different types of settings.
Bibliographic Information
Richard N. Roberts.
Developing Culturally Competent Programs for Families of Children with
Special Needs (1990). Georgetown University Child Development Center:
Logan, UT. (38 pages). Language: English.
Availability
Material is available
at no charge.
Contact address below c/o Richard Roberts.
Early Intervention Research
Institute
Utah State University
6580 Old Main Hill
Logan, UT 84322
(435) 797-3346 phone
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: The intended audience is service delivery personnel, program administrators, and preservice students. Teams, such as staff in a program or a particular early intervention setting, best use the material.
- Product Development: A multicultural workgroup developed this material. This group included individuals from the following cultural and linguistic groups: African American, Hispanic American, Asian American (including Laotian, Hmong, Cambodian), Native American, and Euro-American. These individuals were from early intervention programs as well as from a variety of disciplines (e.g., psychology, nursing, child development, and family studies).
- Product Evaluation: No formal evaluation data has been collected. Informal feedback from participants in training institutes has been overwhelmingly positive. Participants in these institutes have been primarily service delivery personnel and have represented a variety of cultural and linguistic groups.
- Product Dissemination: Approximately 8000 copies have been disseminated in the United States. Individuals in Sweden and South Africa have also requested copies of this material.
Guidelines for Preparation of Early Childhood Professionals
National Association for
the Education of Young Children
Division for Early Childhood
of Council for Exceptional Children
National Board for Professional
Teaching Standards
Summary
This book articulates
the early childhood profession's standards for the preparation of early
childhood professionals. Section 1 provides guidelines for program planners
and evaluators by describing the outcomes of early childhood preparation
programs at the associate, baccalaureate, and advanced levels. Directions
are also included for institutions preparing a folio for approval by the
National Association for the Education of Young Children. Section 2 addresses
the professional preparation of early childhood special educators, including
the content of baccalaureate level preparation and recommendations for
state licensure. Section 3 provides a description of accomplished early
childhood teaching as envisioned by the National Board for Professional
Teaching Standards.
Bibliographic Information
National Association
for the Education of Young Children; Division for Early Childhood of Council
for Exceptional Children; National Board for Professional Teaching Standards.
Guidelines for Preparation of Early Childhood Professionals. (1996). National
Association for the Education of Young Children: Washington, DC. Language:
English.
Availability
May be ordered from:
National Association for the Education of Young Children
1509 6th St., NW
Washington, DC 20036
(800) 424-2460 phone
naeyc@naeyc.org e-mail
http://www.naeyc.org/ web
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: The intended audience is teacher trainers and faculty at the university level involved in designing early childhood programs.
- Product Development: An expert panel including members from NAEYC, DEC/CEC, and NBPTS developed this material. A diverse group of teacher trainers, faculty, and individuals in these organizations worked together to develop the standards and guidelines for content and experiences for associate, baccalaureate, and advanced degree early childhood programs.
- Product Evaluation: No formal evaluation has been completed. Informal feedback has been positive. Over one hundred early childhood programs have gone through the NCATE process, which includes information about the use of this material in program development.
- Product Dissemination: Approximately 27,000 copies of this material have been disseminated. Twenty thousand copies were distributed as a Comprehensive Member benefit for NAEYC members. The remainder have been ordered by individuals from a variety of educational institutions. This material has been disseminated throughout the United States, as well as in Canada and Australia.
Project Prepare: Planning: Competency-BasedPersonnel Preparation in Early Childhood Education
Sally E. Pisarchick
Phillip Safford
Judith Stahlman
Lisa Barnhouse
Vivian Nutter
Amie Henry
Becky Scorer
Michele Beery
Summary
One of nine competency-based
training modules for personnel preparation in early childhood special
education, this guide focuses on planning preschool programs. All modules
are adaptable for use with a general audience, direct service personnel,
or administrators. They are based on the following principles: developmentally
appropriate practice, integration of children with disabilities with typically
developing peers, collaborative relationships with families, attention
to individual needs, and provision for and valuing of diversity among
young children and their families. Modules are intended to be used in
whole or in part, in groups, or for self-instruction. Each module comprises
the following: goals, competencies (knowledge, skill, and values and attitudes),
and objectives with a matrix for each objective identifying enabling activities,
resources, and leader notes. Relevant handouts, forms, and readings are
provided for each objective. This module is designed to assist in the
writing of a preschool program philosophy, the selection of developmentally-
and exceptionality-appropriate curriculum, and the establishment of a
preschool environment appropriate for both typically developing children
and those with disabilities. The module also covers data collection, record
keeping, program evaluation, and the role of planning in establishing
interpersonal interactions that support the development of young children.
Bibliographic Information
Sally E. Pisarchick,
Phillip Safford, Judith Stahlman, Lisa Barnhouse, Vivian Nutter, Arnie
Henry, Becky Storer, Michele Beery. Project Prepare: Planning: CompetencyBased
Personnel Preparation in Early Childhood Education (1995). Ohio Department
of Education: Columbus, OH. Language: English.
Availability
Available for loan
only from:
The Ohio Department of Education
Division of Early Childhood Education Information Dissemination
470 Glenmont Ave.
Columbus, OH 43214
(614) 262-4545 phone
Also available for sale
from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service by calling (800) 443-3742,
or order online at http://edrs.com.
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: This model is intended for administrators, parents, students, faculty and trainers, paraprofessionals, and service delivery personnel. The model is intended for professionals in the field of early intervention and early childhood special education at an advanced level. The material speaks to the needs of multicultural groups, though it is only available in English. The material is designed for both in-service training of professionals and for parent education.
- Product Development: The material was researched and developed by teams of service personnel with leadership provided by a director/research team. Administrators, parents, faculty, service delivery personnel and paraprofessionals participated in the development of this material. Those who participated in the development were from a variety of disciplines, including audiology, early intervention and early childhood special education, occupational therapy, psychology, nursing, family therapy, physical therapy, and speech pathology.
- Product Evaluation: The material was evaluated by the following groups: A steering committee comprised of local leadership in early childhood with state and regional leaders from Ohio, a reactor panel, university leadership, the members of the 8 teams involved in the development of the other 8 modules. The material underwent field-testing in the state of Ohio. Those that participated in the evaluation included European Americans, African Americans, and Puerto Ricans.
- Product Dissemination: Approximately 400 sets of Project Prepare have been distributed The modules have been distributed through the Ohio Department of Education Special Regional Service Center to the following: directors of Ohio early childhood programs, instructional resource coordinators, higher education trainers in early childhood, and supervisors of early childhood programs.
Roots & Wings: Affirming Culture in EarlyChildhood Programs
Stacey York
Summary
Noting that the
concept of America as a "melting pot" ignores the differences that make
individuals unique, this book provides a perspective on how culture influences
life in the classroom, and the importance of maintaining culture in the
lives of young children by means of multicultural education. The book
provides over 60 hands-on activities for children that shape respectful
attitudes toward cultural differences and examples of ways culture affects
behavior and routines in the classroom, including strategies for responding
in respectful ways, ideas for integrating cultural awareness, and recommendations
for staff training in multicultural education. Chapter one provides an
introduction to the book and a rationale for multicultural education.
Chapter two provides a definition of multicultural education, its importance,
and goals. Chapter three provides guidance in implementing multicultural
education, while chapter four addresses integrating multiculturalism in
the teaching and classroom environment. Chapter five provides activities
for teaching children about culture in areas such as skin color, physical
characteristics, similarities and differences, and social skills. Chapter
six provides ideas for using holidays and celebrations in multicultural
education. Chapter seven addresses children's awareness of differences,
including cultural awareness and prejudice formation. Chapter eight addresses
culturally responsive care and education and describes culturally-related
child rearing patterns and dealing with ongoing problems. Chapter nine
addresses talking to children about differences as empowering and as an
agent of change.
Bibliographic Information
Stacey York. Roots &
Wings: Affirming Culture in Early Childhood Programs (1991). Red Leaf
Press: St. Paul, MN. Language: English.
Availability
May be ordered from:
Red Leaf Press
A Division of Resources for Child Caring
450 N. Syndicate, Suite
5
St. Paul, MN 55104
(800) 423-8309 phone
(800) 641-0115 fax
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: This publication was written for individuals working in child care who may be administrators, preservice students, faculty and trainers, parents, service delivery personnel, paraprofessionals, early childhood teachers, and preschool child care providers in the United States regardless of race or culture. This material will be useful to individuals working with preschool children and interested in multicultural education.
- Product Development: This book was written by Stacey York, who is European American. Funding for this publication was provided by the Bush Foundation through a grant to Resources for Child Caring, Inc.
- Product Evaluation: An evaluation has been ongoing since the development of the material. Since the date of the printed material, more than 186 home- and center-based child care providers in 3 cities and 4 counties in Eastern Virginia (urban and suburban areas) were involved in the evaluation. Data suggests that the Special Care training resulted in an increase in caregivers' comfort, knowledge, and interest in caring for children with disabilities. Parents indicated that the availability of care was increased after Special Care training.
- Product Dissemination: Approximately 4000 copies of this material have been disseminated throughout the United States and on U.S. military bases overseas.
Serving Culturally Diverse Families of Infants and Toddlers with Disabilities
Penny P. Anderson
Emily Schrag Fenichel
Summary
This publication emerged
from an invitational meeting held by Project Zero to Three to address
how best to provide effective, culturally sensitive, and comprehensive
early intervention programs
to all infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families. Following
an overview of the concept of culture and how that concept may be understood
and used by human service providers, specific cultural issues are discussed,
such as family definitions, roles, relationships, and child-rearing techniques;
health, illness, and disability beliefs and traditions; and communication
and interactional styles. This information is then used as a basis for
suggesting strategies which states might consider in their efforts to
enhance cultural sensitivity in services. The strategies focus on collecting
data, incorporating family participation in policy making and program
design, heightening public awareness, working with individual families,
staffing, monitoring, and evaluating. Included are a list of 22 references,
a list of 33 recommended readings, and descriptions of resource organizations
and projects.
Bibliographic Information
Penny P Anderson,
Emily Fenichel. Serving Culturally Diverse Families of Infants and Toddlers
with Disabilities (1989). National Center for Clinical Infant Programs:
Washington, D.C. (31 pages). Language: English.
Availability
May be ordered from:
National Center for Clinical Infant Programs
Zero to Three, National Centers for Infants/Toddlers and Families
734 Fifteenth St., NW, Suite 1000
Washington, D.C. 20005
(800) 899-4301 phone
http://www.zerotothree.org web
Producer Information
- Intended User Audience: This material was written for professionals at local and state agencies of any related disciplines (e.g., social work, nursing, speech therapy, physical therapy, early intervention) who serve infants and toddlers and their families in the U.S.
- Product Development: The material was drafted by the two authors with assistance from national conference participants from 15 states and from diverse cultural backgrounds. They contributed their expertise in identifying gaps and issues in providing effective, culturally sensitive and comprehensive early intervention programs to all infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families.
- Product Evaluation: There was no formal evaluation with the material.
- Product Dissemination: Many copies have been distributed to the 15 states who participated in Project Zero to Three. However, the number of copies disseminated is not known.
Early Childhood Research Institute on
Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
61 Children's Research Center
51 Gerty Drive
Champaign, Illinois 61820-7498
voice/tty 1.877.275.3227
web site http://clas.illinois.edu/
Copyright © 2000 CLAS. All rights reserved.
The CLAS Institute is funded with federal funds from the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, under contract number H024560006. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Department of Education, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign